International Communication for Women in Culture and Society

Question: Talk about theInternational Communicationfor Women in Culture and Society. Answer: There is as yet an unevenness in the progression of worldwide news. Do you concur or differ with this announcement? The 21st century is portrayed by powerful and multi-dimensional types of stream of data that have been diverted towards driving turn of events and modernization, particularly in decolonized nations. Notwithstanding the means made, an unevenness despite everything exists with regards to the progression of worldwide news. This paper, along these lines, gives an examination on the awkwardness in the progression of worldwide news utilizing the Structural hypothesis of dominion and the world framework hypothesis. The basic hypothesis of colonialism by Johan Galtung contends that the world is comprised of focus and outskirts countries and every country has its fringe and focus (Cho, 2013, p. 785). The hypothesis expresses that as a rule, data streams from the created countries to creating. Which means, there is an unequal and unidirectional progression of news and TV programs from the inside (created nations) to the outskirts (creating countries) (Cho, 2013, p. 788). This is genuine considering the number and sort of data secured by worldwide media. For instance, most news content secured by the CNN is generally founded on the great happenings in created nations. Be that as it may, while examining Africa, which has additionally creating countries, the narratives are underlined on disasters, for example, dry spell, infections, and fighting. Much the same as the Structural hypothesis of dominion, the World framework hypothesis created by humanist Immanuel Wallerstein can be utilized to clarify the idea of data stream of worldwide news (Ei-Ojeili, 2014, p. 135). This methodology recommends that there exists a world monetary framework where a few nations advantage and others are exploited. Implying that there is some level of predominance among countries and the center nations overwhelm the fringe. The strength is showed in the cosmetics of news and program content (Ei-Ojeili, 2014, p. 140). Most news secured by universal news offices depends on the created countries. For instance, during the US decisions, everyone's eyes were on what was occurring there. This may not be right. Be that as it may, Zambia had political race hardly any prior months at that point, and the worldwide media came to cover it just when confusion emitted. Taking everything into account, the investigation done indicated that undoubtedly, there is a condition of lopsidedness in the progression of data news. This state shows that there is still some type of neocolonialism where countries saw to be prevalent command the progression of data. In addition, creating countries are brought to spotlight in the worldwide news to show how things are awful there. Compose an Essay wherein you clarify the significance of internet based life organizes in forming political discussions Many depict web based life as the best development everything being equal. This is on the grounds that, without precedent for history, individuals from everywhere throughout the world can impart, trade thoughts and unite noteworthy change. Internet based life systems such Facebook and Twitter made another channel of mass correspondence with additional opportunities. Considering this, this article talks about the importance of web based life arranges in molding political discussions. Web based life systems have empowered an organized society and worldwide availability (Kiesler, 2014, p. 178). Today, correspondence on governmental issues, economy and social government aides occur past national fringes and seen by everybody from anyplace insofar as one approaches the Internet. Gatherings have exploited this element of online life systems to advance their philosophies and activate the majority to help in accomplishing their goals (Kiesler, 2014, p. 179). This couldn't be more genuine in examining the #feesmustfall fight in South Africa that started in October 2015 in light of the expansion in expenses at South African colleges. The fights started at the University of Witwatersrand and spread to Rhodes University and the University of Witwatersrand. From that point forward, the dissent spread to all the colleges inside the nation. They utilized Facebook in sending messages to understudies in different colleges to join the dissent that later observed the legislature declare that expenses had been diminished. This shows SNSs are compelling foundation of communicating the issues looked by the general public and guaranteeing that the difficulties are tended to (Leung, 2015, p. 1007). The understudies fight in South Africa and the article, Will the unrest be tweeted? show us the degree to which SNSs have rendered the world associated. In view of their adequacy in guaranteeing people groups voices are heard, these stages are important on a national scale (Leung, 2015, p. 1020). They can be utilized by anybody to bring change that will have an everlasting impact. Taking everything into account, Social Media Network has demonstrated to be urgent in molding people groups sees in governmental issues. Through locales, for example, Facebook, understudies in South African colleges are getting a charge out of low expenses. Accordingly, organizations, for example, governments ought to put more in utilizing SNSs in speaking with the general population. Incorporated Marketing Communication (IMC) Campaign The magnificence of global correspondence is that it empowers the business to have their items shown inside the home state as well as outside the nation. Kawai-International Motors is a South African worldwide motorbike producing organization that tries to import Kanko1.2GL motorbikes to the Nigerian market. As the worldwide advertising advisor, I have been mentioned to design an Integrated Marketing Communication (IMC) crusade for the advancement of Kanko1.2GL motorbikes in the Nigerian market. The following is a conversation of how I will do it. A coordinated showcasing correspondence is an idea in advertising that guarantees every single limited time apparatus are together and working in concordance (Touboulic, 2016, p. 85). Being that advancement is one of the Ps in the advertising blend, it is significant in making a connection between the messages and specialized apparatuses. The 4 Ps in showcasing speak to the item, value, advancement, and spot (Touboulic, 2016, p. 86). It is significant for the buyers to have an away from of what the item is and what it does. The cost of the item decides the net revenues, gracefully, request, and promoting procedure. Advancement guarantees that the buyer gets the item's data. It ordinarily initiates the acquisition of the item. Ultimately, place in advertising guarantees that the item is put in a perfect area with the capacity to transform potential clients into real clients. The IMC made is equipped towards edifying the individuals in Nigeria about the characteristics of the Kanko1.2GL motorbikes. Furthermore, the battle will make a qualification between our item and those of our rivals. Thirdly, through it, we would like to accomplish a 10% expansion in benefit inside the main year of our item in Nigeria. In addition, we want to construct a client base and initiate brand reliability among our potential clients. In this battle, I expect to utilize TV adverts as the fundamental limited time instrument. This is on the grounds that, over 70% of the populace in Nigeria approach TV and since our objectives are the bike riders, it is simpler to discover them going to TV after work hours than utilizing the web (Tibu, 2013, p. 2). I additionally mean to utilize the web in publicizing our item on various dynamic sites, for example, Facebook. Measurements show that in excess of 20 million Nigerians rely upon cruisers as methods for transport (Tibu, 2013, p. 2). Likewise, numerous jobless adolescents and men acquire a living by running bikes as a business movement (Tibu, 2013, p. 2). This shows there is a promptly accessible market; we simply need to modify our costs and guarantee that the motorbikes we are selling are one of a kind and durable. Finally, the adverts will be in English since most Nigerians communicate in this language. The IMC has demonstrated to be a compelling advertising methodology particularly in selling the item past a countrys fringes. Accordingly, organizations should design cautiously while making an IMC to arrive at its targets. References List Cho, S. (2013). Toward a Field of Intersectionality Studies: Theory, Applications, and Praxis. Diary of Women in Culture and Society, 38 , 785-810. Ei-Ojeili, C. (2014). Reflections on Wallerstein: The Modern World-System, Four Decades on. Sage Journals , 138-154. Kiesler, S. (2014). Culture of the Internet. Brain science Press. Leung, Y. Z. (2015). The New Media and the general public: An audit of the Social Networking Service. New Media Society , 1007-1024. Tibu, F. (2013, June 21). Nigeria Manufactures the First Motorcycle. Recovered May 2, 2017, from Autoevolution: https://www.autoevolution.com Touboulic, A. (2016). Feasible buying and gracefully. Diary of Marketing Channels , 85-87.

Instructional strategies and approaches Essay Example for Free

Instructional procedures and approaches Essay Presentation Careful observing of understudy learning is a basic segment of value instruction . It is a solid indicator of understudy accomplishment just as a significant separating factor between compelling schools and instructors from the incapable ones. Observing of understudy learning alludes to the different exercises sought after by mindful and equipped instructors to monitor understudy learning for motivations behind creation instructional choices and giving criticism to understudies on their presentation and progress in school. Methodologies for Monitoring Students. Understudies have distinctive learning styles which is the reason educators ought to endeavor hard to track down exercises that will suit the requirements of their understudies. One method of observing understudies to guarantee learning is by asking them inquiries about the exercise introduced to check in the event that they get it or not. Addressing is an exceptionally successful procedure to bring understudies into the taking in process from the earliest starting point of a class meeting until the end. It animates their enthusiasm for new subjects, thoughts and difficulties; and it urges understudies to be intelligent about their own convictions, presumptions and appreciation of new points. Addressing passes on to understudies what they are to realize, what they are to do, and how they will do it. Successful addressing includes arranging and practice preceding directing exercises. Questions, oral recitations and different methods for calling upon understudies to show their comprehension of exercises introduced are a portion of the techniques instructors used to see whether their guidance is working and viable or on the off chance that it should be clarified further or balanced here and there to guarantee learning of understudies. Another strategy for checking understudy learning and progress is by regulating their seat works. This action includes the instructor to course or move around the study hall to check how well or how ineffectively the understudies are advancing in the errand. This is likewise an open door for her to give a coordinated guidance to the individuals who need it. Schoolwork then again can be helpful, impartial, or impeding relying on the nature and the setting of the schoolwork undertakings. When deliberately observed by the educator, this action can build the student’s learning time, in this manner, may add to an expansion in the student’s accomplishment. Schoolwork likewise assists understudies with increasing an uplifting disposition towards school, close to the specific branches of knowledge in which schoolwork is doled out and toward the schoolwork itself. Every day, week by week and month to month audits can simultaneously improve the learning of new material whenever consolidated with addressing and other learning tests. Thusly, the instructor can recognize those regions which needs re-educating. Homeroom testing likewise bear a positive relationship to later understudy accomplishment when controlled consistently and every now and again. Studies uncovered that understudies who are tried regularly and given input promptly are found to have inspirational mentalities toward tests. They view tests as an encouraging element to the learning and examining process. At long last, educators ought to much of the time audit student’s execution information to keep an eye on their presentation and progress. This is led to distinguish who among the understudies are at dangers, needs remediation or a one-on-one educating. Compelling Monitoring Systems Teachers should, before continuing to the following exercise, decide first whether the understudies comprehended her exercises or not. It is significant that understudies should rehearse or perform abilities in the correct manner first before acquainting them with another exercise or sub-aptitude. Truly outstanding and best methods of observing my understudies is by asking them inquiries during class conversations. This isn't just to draw their consideration towards the exercise introduced to them, however to likewise to invigorate their enthusiasm to the following subject that I am going to acquaint with them. Addressing achieves such a large number of things in my understudies. To start with, it fortifies or amends their comprehension towards the subject being examined to them. It likewise urges them to participate in dynamic learning. It gives them new data picked up from the inquiries raised and it offers them a chance to explain a few focuses in the subject being examined. First, it sets them up to learn and apply new ability to new difficulties, and hence, expands their perspective about existence. Addressing doesn't just widen my students’ center around the subject introduced to them yet it empowers me to recognize their readiness to acknowledge new data. This educated data encourages me to adjust, rebuild or change the exercises that I am going to acquaint with them a while later. I likewise put stock in the significance of managing my student’s seatwork. I see that this system starts more connection with my understudies than simply sit tight for them to call me and request help. At the point when important, I additionally give augmentation for the individuals who need additional opportunity to complete their undertakings. This is to permit moderate students to adapt to the remainder of their schoolmates. Other than giving customized or one-on-one guidance, time expansions is additionally useful and successful as a way to guarantee learning in understudies. At the point when my understudies are through with their undertakings, I generally try to have them turned in for checking and reviewing purposes. Checking student’s schoolwork is additionally an incredible assistance to guarantee learning in understudies. To have the option to receive its rewards, I generally ensure that the schoolwork I provided for them are those that are attached to the topic we as of now concentrated in the study hall and are proper to their development level. I utilize this sort of checking framework as a methods for broadening understudy practice time with the new material introduced to them. I additionally ensure that guardians get include all the while, and that they know about what should be done with the goal that they themselves urge their youngster to do the schoolwork. Turned in schoolwork are constantly evaluated, remarked on and checked before being given back to understudies as this would permit my understudies to survey and right their errors. At long last, to check whether my guidelines were completely comprehended or not, I give my understudies a test or a short test to affirm their grip of the exercise introduced to them and to recognize too potential holes in their insight and comprehension of the branch of knowledge. This additionally encourages me monitor my student’s learning for the reasons for settling on instructional choices and giving input on their presentation and progress in school. Every one of these procedures are utilized to have the option to make modifications in my guidelines to guarantee learning in my understudies; to decide whether the strategies I utilized in encouraging them are powerful or not and; to recognize also who among my understudies are at dangers, needs remediation or a one-on-one educating.

Stillbirth Fetus Death - Free Essay Example

Abstract: Feto-infant mortality is increasing worldwide. Stillbirth is defined as uterofetal death at 20 weeks of gestation or greater. Stillbirths contribute as a primary factor to the growing magnitude of feto-infant mortality. The reasons for stillbirth are usually not reported. In many cases, the specific cause of fetal death remains unknown. The key risk factors include smoking, increased maternal age, being overweight, fetal-maternal hemorrhage. Even though there has been remarkable development in prenatal and intranatal care, stillbirths have been consistently increasing and remain an important problem in obstetrics and gynecology. Current research studies focus mainly on the epidemiology of stillbirths. I review the known and suspected causes of stillbirth. It also describes the recommended diagnostic tests to evaluate definite cause of stillbirth. In this paper, I also review analysis of stillbirths in the United States (US). The National Center of Health Statistics recorded 26,359 stillbirths in 2001. The number of stillbirths can be greatly reduced if the specific reasons for stillbirth are understood. Introduction: A pregnancy ending in stillbirth can be mentally devastating to a patient and her family. The most widely accepted definition of stillbirth is death of the fetus inside the uterus at 20 weeks of gestation or greater (Cartlidge et al., 1995). Much information is available on protocols for evaluating other types of postmortem examination but little work has been done on the evaluation of the causes of stillbirths (Mirlene et al., 2004). No universally followed protocol is available to guide the evaluation of stillbirths. In part because a wide variety of causes can be involved in stillbirths and it can be difficult to designate a specific cause of death. A stillbirth might result from various diseases, infections, trauma or genetic defects in the mother or fetus (Gardosi et al., 2005). In many cases, a specific reason is not known. Even though stillbirths are a serious problem, few resources have been focused on them and most obstetricians lack a sound method of evaluating of stillbirths (Petersson, 2002). In this document, I will review the accepted causes of still birth and the suggested diagnostic tests for evaluating the reason behind stillborn infants. In the year 2001 in the US, the National Center of Health Statistics recorded 26,359 stillbirths (Ananth et al., 2005). When compared to 27,568 infant deaths were reported in the same year. More than half of the stillbirths are before 28 weeks of gestation and almost 20% are close to the term. If a history of stillbirth exists then there is a 5-fold increase for subsequent stillbirth to occur. Prominent racial discrimination occurs in the rates of stillbirths. Stillbirths are almost three times more prevalent in African Americans when compared to whites (Puza et al., 2006). In 2001, the rate of stillbirths among white mothers was 5.5 per 1000 live births and 12.1 per 1000 among the black mothers. According to an analysis of U.S. vital statistics between 1995 and 1998, the increased risk of black, compared with white, stillbirths is greatest among singleton stillbirths (Puza et al., 2006). Reduction of proportion of fetal deaths at gestation of 20weeks or longer to 4.1 per 1000 live births and also reduction of fetal deaths for all racial and ethnic groups are the objectives of U.S. National Health for 2010. Categorization of Stillbirths: Different attempts were made in order to classify causes of stillbirth. Baird and his colleagues were among the first to classify the causes of perinatal death from the available clinical information. Depending on the British perinatal mortality survey, in 1958 Butler and Bonham designed a classification scheme that included the results of postmortem examinations. The most widely used is the 9 category classification system formulated by Wigglesworth and his coworkers (Wigglesworth, 1980). A new classification scheme which does not include neonatal deaths was proposed by Gardosi and his colleagues known as the ReCoDe Classification which focuses on the relevant conditions at the time of death in the uterus. It includes factors which affect the fetus followed by the factors which affect the mother (Gardosi et al., 2005). When compared with the Wigglesworth classification, a remarkable decrease in the number of unclassified stillbirth was achieved using this classification. One of the most vital aspects is to develop a proper definition of the factors that lead to death of the fetus. The basic definition for the cause of death is injury or disease responsible for a death. Froendefined cause of death in stillbirth as an event or condition of sufficient severity, magnitude, and duration for death to be expected in a majority of such cases in a continued pregnancy in the clinical setting where it was observed (Froen, 2002). When the definition of cause of death is reviewed, it is observed that only a few disorders are directly responsible for fetal death while many others are not. Causes of Stillbirth: Infection: Infections such as viral, protozoal and bacterial are linked with stillbirth. Almost 10-25% of stillbirths result from feto-maternal infections in the developed countries where as bacterial infections are common in developing countries (Goldenberg et al., 2003). Stillbirths that result from infection might be due to various factors which include direct infection, placental damage, and severe maternal illness. Usually the stillbirths in the initial weeks of gestation are linked with infection. Bacterial infections caused by Escherichia coli, group B streptococci, and Ureaplasma urealyticum are a cause of stillbirth in developed countries (Goldenberg et al., 2003). If syphilis epidemic occurs in an area then it might be the cause of a considerable proportion of stillbirths. If women come in contact with a parasite like malaria for the first time then stillbirth might be attributed to it. Toxoplasma gondii, leptospirosis, Listeria monocytogenes, Q fever, and Lyme disease are associated with the occurrence of stillbirth (Goldenberg et al., 2003). The magnitude of stillbirths due to viral infections is not known mainly due to the absence of a well defined systematic evaluation of infections in stillborn infants. The problem lies behind the fact that these viruses are difficult to culture and moreover, a positive viral serological diagnostic test identifying the DNA or RNA of the virus in the fetal tissue or placental tissue does not definitely determine that infection was the reason behind death. In most of the cases, infection is linked with stillbirth in early gestational weeks around twenty weeks. If molecular diagnostic technology (DNA and RNA polymerase chain reaction [PCR]) is utilized, it will help in diagnosis of viral infections without any error. Parvovirus B-19 appears to have the strongest association with stillbirth. According to a Swedish survey, in 8%of stillbirths B-19 PCR positive tissues were observed (Enders et al., 2004). In the United States, less than 1% of all stillbirths are reported to be due to parvovirus infection Parvovirus B19 moves across the placenta spreading the infection to fetal erythropoetic tissue resulting in fetal anemia leading to fetal death (Wapner et al., 2002). Myocardial damage may also occur due to Parvovirus B19. Here the virus directly attacks the fetal cardiac tissue. Parvovirus infection that leads to stillbirth usually occurs before 20 weeks of gestation (Wapner et al., 2002). Enteroviruses which include Coxsackie A and B, echoviruses and other enteroviruses are associated with stillbirth. Coxsackie viruses can cross the placenta and lead to villous necrosis, inflammatory cell infiltration, calcific pancarditis, and hydrops. Echovirus infection begins with severe maternal illness and finally ends with stillbirth. Cytomegalovirus (CMV) belongs to herpesvirus family and it is a congenital viral infection. Initially, the mother is infected and then it is transmitted to the fetus. CMV causes placental damage leading to intrauterine fetal growth restriction, but an association with stillbirth remains controversial (Goldenberg et al., 2003). Viral infections in the mother like rubella, mumps and measles are linked with stillbirth. If the vaccinations are administered on time then the proportion of stillbirths occurring due to infections can be reduced greatly. Genetics: Genetic causes are responsible for a considerable magnitude of stillbirths. 6- 12% of stillbirths attributed to genetic etiologies are due to karyotyping abnormalities. Due to the fact that in some of the cases cells cannot be cultured, karyotyping is not possible. Such factors alter the exact estimate of stillbirths resulting from chromosomal abnormalities. In stillborn fetuses which show apparent structural defects the probability of chromosomal abnormality is much higher when compared to normal stillborn fetuses. The usually focused abnormalities include monosomy X (23%), trisomy 21 (23%), trisomy 18 (21%), and trisomy 13 (8%). There are many instances where the karyotype of the stillborn is normal yet the cause of death is a genetic abnormality. Indeed, 25-35% of stillborn infants undergoing autopsy have intrinsic abnormalities (Wapner et al., 2002) .These include single malformations (40%), multiple malformations (40%), and deformations or dysplasia (20%) (Wapner et al., 2002). Almost 25% ofstillborns due to intrinsic defects show an abnormal karyotype whereas the rest of the 75% may have genetic defects which are not identifiable by the regular cytogenetic tests. This holds good for fetuses with multiple abnormalities. Single gene mutations may be responsible for death of the fetus in early weeks of development. Stillbirths in the midgestational weeks might be due to abnormal placental growth, development, or angiogenesis. Some autosomal recessive disorders including glycogen storage diseases and hemoglobinopathies have been reported as the cause of stillbirth (Wapner et al., 2002). In male fetuses, X-linked disorders may prove to be fatal. Many other genetic defects that are not recognized by the conventional cytogenetic diagnostics may lead to stillbirth. For example, conventional karyotype cannot identify chromosomal microdeletions that are linked with unexplained mental retardation. Confined placental mosaicism has also been associated with fetal growth impairment and stillbirth (Kalousek et al., 1994). Heritable Thrombophilia is another probable etiology of stillbirth.It is thought that placental infarction occurs due to thrombosis in the uteroplacental circulation leading to death. This poses concern over other thrombophilic defects and their effects on stillbirth. It is noteworthy that many heritable thrombophilias are common in normal individuals without a history of thrombosis or pregnancy loss (Rey et al., 2003). Even though many studies relate thrombophilias to fetal loss, most of the women with thrombophilias have healthy pregnancies with no lethal complications. It can be said that in the absence of any previous obstetric problems, thrombophilia will not result in stillbirth. Feto-maternal Hemorrhage: Feto-maternal hemorrhage has been linked to almost 3- 14% of all stillbirths which implies that it is responsible for a considerable number of stillbirths. Obstetric procedures such as external cephalic version and cesarean section lead to fetal maternal hemorrhage. Hemorrhage can also result due to placental abruption and/or abdominal trauma during pregnancy. Fetal maternal hemorrhage must be identified and quantitated using a proper dependable diagnostic test to attribute this reason behind the death of fetus. Hypoxia and anemia are indicators of death due to fetal hemorrhage. So, they should be confirmed by autopsy as in some normal cases too, few fetal cells can be seen in maternal blood. Maternal Features: Delayed child bearing or increased maternal age, prepregnancy obesity and stress are found to have their effects on the occurrence of stillbirth. The underlying mechanisms of action are unknown; however, with both obesity and delayed child-bearing on the rise, their importance as potential causes of stillbirth deserves greater attention (Cnattingius et al., 2002). Women whose only risk factor is being overweight have about a 2-fold increased risk of stillbirth (Nohr et al., 2005). Likewise, compared with women younger than 35 years of age, the stillbirth rate is increased 2- fold for women 35-39 years of age, and 3- to 4-fold for women aged 40 years old or olderwhereas some age-associated risk is due to higher rates of maternal complications, in uncomplicated pregnancies there may be a 50% increased risk associated only with maternal age 35 years or older (Nohr et al., 2005). Stress is a suspected cause of stillbirth which might occur as a result of a major life event (such as loss or poverty) (Huang et al., 2000) or through unexplained health changes related to adverse childhood experiences (Hillis et al., 2004). Different exposures are attributed to stillbirth. One of the most prevalent and preventable cause of stillbirth is cigarette smoking (Hillis et al., 2004). Smoking negatively affects fetal growth and oxygen supply to the tissues as it produces high levels of carboxyhemoglobin and decreases blood supply to the placenta. Smoking is also associated with increased risks of placenta previa and placental abruption and women who stop smoking in the first trimester have stillbirth rates equivalent to women who never smoked which indicates that quitting smoking in early pregnancy may significantly reduce the chances of occurrence of stillbirth (Hillis et al., 2004). A variety of complications result due to continuous exposure of different recreational drugs. Consumption of cocaine during pregnancy is also linked with stillbirth because it causes fetal growth restriction and/or abruption. The use of meth amphetamines leads to premature deliveries and stunted growth but its association with stillbirth remains unknown. In some cases, alcohol consumption during pregnancy has been associated with an increased risk of stillbirth (Mary et al., 2006). According to a study in Scandinavia, for women who consume less than 1 drink per week, the rate of stillbirth is 1.37 per 1000 births while the rate increases to 8.83 per 1000 births in women who consume 5 drinks or more per week. If smoking habits, caffeine intake, prepregnancy body mass index, marital status, occupational status, education, parity, and fetal gender are considered, the risk of stillbirth for women consuming 5 drinks or more per week was 2.96 (95% confidence interval 1.37 to 6.41) (Mary et al., 2006). Some studies show a protective effect on both stillbirth and fetal growth restriction rates if small amounts of alcohol are consumed during pregnancy (Mary et al., 2006). A link between pesticide exposure and stillbirth was observed by Pastore and his colleagues in 1997. Occupational exposures prove to be deleterious compared to residential exposure because the occupational exposures cause congenital abnormalities in addition to risk of stillbirth. A noteworthy fact is that the use of fertility drugs is also associated with stillbirths. This finding is problematic due to the fact that many women make use of fertility treatments to conceive. However, data on stillbirths due to exposures is obtained from retrospective studies which are prone to bias. The link between exposures and stillbirth should therefore be dealt with great attention and care. Maternal Diseases: Diabetes: There is always an increased danger of stillbirths in second and third trimester for mothers who are affected with type I or type II diabetes mellitus (DM) pregestationally. Even with modern obstetric care and diabetes management, stillbirth rates in women with type 2 DM have been reported to be 2.5-fold higher than nondiabetic women (Mary et al., 2006). The rate of stillbirth is the same between women with gestational diabetes (GDM) as well as normal women when the whole population is taken into account. The magnitude of danger involved with fetal death in women with type II DM is identical to women with GDM who in fact entered the pregnancy with undiagnosed type II DM. Therefore, women with GDM who have an undiagnosed type II DM are usually at a greater danger of encountering stillbirth. Examples of women with undiagnosed type II DM include history of GDM in previous pregnancies, high fasting glucose values;random glucose values greater than 200mg/dL or diagnosis of GDM early in pregnancy. The reason behind fetal death in late gestation in diabetic women is not known precisely. In addition to an increased risk of fetal death in diabetic women, there also exists a higher magnitude of danger associated with fetal abnormalities in these women compared to healthy women. Stress, hypertension and obesity complement each other in DM patients. In women with DM, there is a higher risk of stillbirth as it may lead to fetal abnormalities which may be either abnormally increased growth rate or retarded growth. To maintain the physiological range of the plasma glucose level, tremendous amounts of insulin is produced by the fetus resulting in fetal hyperglycemia. This fetal hyperglycemia is acquired from maternal hyperglycemia which finally results in fetal death due to excessive growth. The precise limit of plasma glucose level which poses a threat to the fetal life is not well defined. The most that could be done is to detect and deal with it using needed medications to lower the incidents of stillbirths.Many other maternal diseases have been linked to stillbirth, including thyroid disease, cardiovascular disease, asthma, kidney disease, and systemic lupus erythematosus (Simpson, 2002). These are subclinical diseases which in many cases has not been proven to be direct causes of stillbirth and women had normal pregnancies giving birth to healthy babies. Multiple Gestation and Stillbirth: Nearly 3% of all births and 10% of all stillbirths result from multiple pregnancies. According to national vital statistics, 1.8% of twin, 2.4% of triplet, 3.7% of quadruplet, and 5.6% of quintuplet fetuses suffered intrauterine fetal deaths (Salihu et al., 2003). The stillbirth rate among singleton pregnancies is approximately 0.5%. The reason behind fetal death in multiple pregnancies is difficult to be resolved when compared to singleton pregnancies. The broad causes of fetal death in multiple pregnancies include fetal growth retardation, preclamsia, abruption and cord accidents. It is vital to determine the chorionicity of multiple gestations as the rate of stillbirth is higher in monochorionic multiple gestations (Salihu et al., 2003) (Lynch et al., 2007). Assisted Reproductive Technology (ART) is an essential aspect in the occurrence of multiple pregnancies and stillbirth (Helmerhorst et al., 2004). Complications in Fetus: Fetal Growth Restriction: Some stillbirths result from fetuses which are smaller for a particular gestational age (SGA) compared to normal fetuses. Birth weight and risk of stillbirth are inversely proportional. If one increases, the other decreases. The main fact behind stillbirths in this condition is retardation of fetal growth and not the small size of fetus. An obstacle that occurs in determining the precise time of death of fetus due to SGA is the fact that the death might have occurred a long time before but the gestational age at the time of delivery is considered to be the time of death. This gives a false implication of the magnitude of stillbirths resulting from SGA. This problem can be solved by analysis of early and mid pregnancy placental hormones which are very specific for gestational periods (Smith et al., 2004). An evaluation of the amounts of these hormones relates directly to the time of death. Umbilical Cord Accidents: An increased number of stillbirths are due to accidents of umbilical cord like cord occlusion or blockage due to true knots, nuchal cords and compression of the cord. In almost 30% of normal healthy infant deliveries, nuchal cord and true knots in umbilical cords are observed. According to a study in Sweden, 9% of stillbirths were due to cord accidents (Petersson, 2002). Determination of cord accidents leading to fetal death by autopsy is smaller in proportion (up to 2.5%) (Horn et al., 2004). This difference indicates that in the absence of a proper cause, many times fetal death is attributed to cord entanglement. Due to the increased load of complications with live infants, little concern is expressed towards dead fetuses. In order to precisely relate a fetal death to cord accident, a clear indication of either hypoxic tissue injury or cord occlusion must be observed in autopsy. As nuchal cords are observed in normal deliveries also, the exact proportion of stillbirths due to cord accidents is biased. Obstetric Complications: Some of the obstetric complications are preclampsia, preterm premature rupture of membranes, preterm labor, cervical insufficiency, abruption, placenta previa, and vasa previa. These may either be direct or primary causes or may be indirect or secondary causes of stillbirth. Almost 10-19% of stillbirths occur due to abruption. Since cervical insufficiency or preterm labor lead to neonatal death, their role in causing stillbirth is not well defined. Evaluation of Stillbirth Stillbirth in itself may be emotionally devastating to many patients and their families. There the likelihood of carrying out genetic testing or autopsy on the fetus may not be readily agreeable from the family and culture. Lastly the procedures for evaluation must be cost effective and within reach. The two important facts that should be kept in mind while deciding which tests would prove as the most useful ones are primarily the consideration of cost of that test. It should not be beyond limits. Secondarily, if this test would be helpful in prevention of recurrent or sporadic stillbirths. In recurrent stillbirths, medical interference may prove helpful by preventing them in future. Analyzing the etiology of sporadic stillbirths might lead to reassurance and avoid irrelevant diagnostic tests in future pregnancies. The single most useful diagnostic test is a fetal autopsy (Peterson et al., 1999). Not only does the visible genetic and structural abnormalities but also an autopsy would be of great help in relating specific etiologies to stillbirth. The frequency of fetal autopsy is very less due to the fact that it is costly, not many trained pathologists are available and also it may be of great discomfort to the family and clinicians to deal with such a case. If autopsy is refused, partial autopsy or postmortem magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans may provide the necessary data. Embryonic membranes, placenta and umbilical cord must be physically and histologically examined while evaluating stillbirth etiology. This would give a precise cause of fetal death and might also provide clues for death due to secondary causes like infections, thrombophilia, and anemia. In most cases, families do not object on placental evaluation. In the cases where autopsy is not performed karyotyping the fetus would prove helpful. Cells and tissues from placenta (especially chorionic plate), fascia lata, skin from the nape of the neck, and tendons can be isolated and cultured and used for diagnostic tests like karyotyping. Comparative genomic hybridization shows tremendous promise for the identification of chromosomal abnormalities in stillbirths wherein fetal cells cannot be successfully cultured (Silver et al., 2006). An autopsy followed by a careful histological examination might help in relating stillbirths that result due to infections from the bacteria or virus. Parvovirus serology may be useful because this virus has been implicated in a meaningful proportion of cases (Erik et al., 2002). Diagnostic tests are performed for the detection of syphilis also since it contributes to the list of accepted causes of stillbirth. For various viral and protozoal agents like toxoplasmosis, rubella, cytomegalovirus (CMV) and herpes simplex virus (HSV) {TORCH}, serological screening is carried out. For bacterial and viral infections in the fetus, nucleic acid based tests are more helpful when compared to tissue cultures. Feto-maternal hemorrhage can be detected using Kleihauer Betke test (KBT). Most laboratories use manual KBT which is prone to error. It has been found that flow cytometry is a better tool in detecting fetal erythrocytes in maternal blood. In order to eliminate red cell alloimmunization as an etiology of stillbirth, an indirect Coombs test is performed. Autopsy and examination of placenta are helpful in this situation. During the initial prenatal visits, if the antibody screen comes out to be negative then there is a need for recurrent testing. Diagnostic tests for conditions like diabetes and heritable thrombophilias must be carried out on a regular basis to prevent any complications which may lead to stillbirth. The treatment of such conditions at the appropriate time may prevent similar complications in subsequent pregnancies. Heritable thrombophilia might be of concern in the cases where there is recurrent fetal loss or there is a history of thrombosis or with complications involving placental insufficiency like placental infarction and intrauterine growth restriction. Administration of illicit drugs through various modes may be a cause of stillbirth in many cases. Toxicological examination may reveal the results for women who are subjected to such exposures. A simple urinary examination may prove helpful. The advanced and cost effective technology like ELISA (Enzyme Linked Immuno Sorbent Assay) can be used to detect a variety of metabolites like steroids in various tissues like blood, hair, and homogenized umbilical cord. Conclusion: Many medical and nonmedical agents govern the best approach to evaluate a stillbirth. The obstacles faced by obstetricians in solving these issues include the fact that in most of the cases the reason behind fetal death is unknown. Also the magnitude of stillbirths resulting from a single cause is not known precisely. Here there arises a need for population based studies to attribute stillbirths to their specific etiologies. There is a clear cut need of experts in the field of perinatal pathology and the required funding should be provided at the national level to promote it. Moreover, the clinician should be aware of the history of pregnant women in better evaluation. In cases where the local clinicians cannot reach a conclusion, the tissue samples must be sent to senior pathologists who have a thorough command on the subject and can help in reaching decisive conclusions. A universally accepted protocol is required for a systematic evaluation of stillbirths. Due to its absence a difference of opinion occurs among the obstetricians and gynecologists. The institutions like Stillbirth Collaborative Research Network should formulate guidelines for the proper judgement of stillbirth etiologies. The responsibility lies in the hands of the clinicians to do the best they can to reach a definite conclusion from the available data. It is noteworthy that the proportion of stillbirths that are explained is much higher in centers using systematic evaluations for recognized causes and potential causes of stillbirth (Petersson, 2002) (Horn et al., 2004). In conclusion, autopsy, placental evaluation, karyotype, Kleihauer-Betke, antibody screen, and serologic test for syphilis are useful in evaluating the etiologies of stillbirth. Depending on the case, other relative tests should be performed. The approach towards the testing of potential causes of stillbirth is not clear if it should be very specific and sequential or should it be comprehensive which means that it is targeted towards a broad spectrum of causes. Each of these has its own advantage. Sequential testing avoids false positive results and is directed to a specific cause and more over, it is cost effective. Comprehensive testing may prove helpful in cases where more than one factor is responsible for stillbirth. The problem with autopsy, placental evaluation, karyotype, screen for fetal-maternal hemorrhage, and toxicology screen is that they are dependant on time, that is, these tests should be performed immediately after the delivery. Autopsy cannot be delayed because death of the fetus already occurred and this would lead to physiological changes in the whole body and decay begins. The necessary evidence for stillbirth is easily available from fresh samples of placenta and also for toxicology screen. As the time since death increases, the physiology of fetus also changes leading to false positive or false negative results. If the time of fetal examination is delayed, fetal hemorrhage may be mistaken for postmortem lividity. Therefore a serious call for action is expected from institutions like Stillbirth Collaborative Research Network (SCRN) which would help in creating the most applicable diagnostic setting for evaluation of stillbirth (Silver et al., 2006). SCRN was developed by the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development to target the range of etiologies of stillbirth in the U.S. The aim of SCRN is to focus on the following objectives. The use of standardized surveillance in a geographic catchment area will show that the stillbirth rates are greater than those reported in the vital statistics catchment. The use of a prospectively implemented, standardized, postmortem, and placental examination protocols will improve diagnosis of fetal or placental conditions that cause or contribute to stillbirth. Maternal biologic and environmental risk factors in combination with genetic predisposition increase the risk for stillbirth. This is a population based study which is carried out in different counties of different states in the U.S. This study would take into account all the stillbirths and live births occurring in rural as well as urban areas in different racial groups. Even though occurrence of stillbirths cannot be stopped completely, yet attempts of such sort can be made atleast to prevent them to a maximum extent. Glossary Abruptio placenta totalis A placental abruption is a serious condition in which the placenta partially or completely separates from the uterus before the baby is born. Achondrogenesis Dwarfism characterized by various bone aplasias and hypoplasias of the extremities and a short trunk with delayed ossification of the lower spine. Alloimmunization Development of antibodies in response to alloantigens; antigens derived from a genetically dissimilar animal of the same species. Angiogenesis The formation of new blood vessels. Anomaly abnormality Autosome a chromosome other than the X and Y sex-determining chromosomes. Camptomelia bending of the limbs that produce a permanent curving or bowing. Cholestasis a condition caused by rapidly developing or long-term interruption in the excretion of bile (a digestive fluid that helps the body process fat). Chondrodysplasia Congenital dwarfism similar to but milder than achondroplasia, not familial and not evident until mid-childhood, in which the skull and facial features remain normal. Chorioamnionitis Inflammation of the fetal membranes. Dystocia Difficult delivery or parturition. Erythema infectiosum mild infectious disease occurring mainly in early childhood, marked by a rosy-red maculopapular rash on the cheeks, often spreading to the trunk and limbs. Fever and arthritis may also be present. Erythropoetic production of red blood cells. Fascia lata the deep fascia of the thigh. Hydrops excessive accumulation of serous fluid in tissues or cavities of the body. Isoimmunization The development of specific antibodies as a result of antigenic stimulation using material derived from the red blood cells of another individual of the same species. Iatrogenic Induced in a patient by a physicians activity, manner, or therapy. Leptospirosis a febrile disease (fever) caused by infection with the bacteria Leptospira interrogans. Lividity discoloration of dependent parts by gravitation of blood. Monochorionic a single chorion. Neoplasia formation of new tissue. Oligohydramnios Deficiency in the amount of amniotic fluid. Placental mosaicism abnormal chromosomes in some or all placental tissue but not the fetus. Placental infarction blockage of blood circulation to the placenta resulting in tissue death. Polyhydramnios excess of amniotic fluid. Polysplenia multiple small accessory spleens. Preclamsia narrowing of blood vessels. Systemic lupus erythematosus a disease where a persons immune system attacks and injures the bodys own organs and tissues. Thrombophilia disorder of the hemopoietic system in which there is an increased tendency for thrombosis (blood clots). Vasa Previa condition in which fetal intramembranous blood vessels traverse the fetal membranes across the lower segment of the uterus between the fetus and the cervical opening. Velamentous Resembling a veil in shape and composition. References Cited: Ananth CV, Liu S, Kinzler WL, Kramer MS. Stillbirths in the United States, 1981-2000: An age, period, and cohort analysis. Am J Public Health 2005;95:2213-7. Cartlidge PH, Stewart JH., Effects of Changing the Stillbirth Definition on Evaluation of Perinatal Mortality Rates, ncbi, 346(8973): 486-8, 1995. Cnattingius S, Stephansson O. The epidemiology of stillbirth. Semin Perinatol 2002; 26:25-30. Enders M, Weidner A, Zoellner I, Searle K, Enders G. Fetal morbidity and mortality after acute human parvovirus B19 infection in pregnancy: prospective evaluation of 1018 cases. Prenat Diagn 2004;24:513-8. Erik D.H.and Kevin E. B. Human Parvovirus B19. Clinical Microbiology Reviews, July 2002, p. 485505 Faye-Petersen OM, Guinn DA, Wenstrom KD. Value of perinatal autopsy. Obstet Gynecol 1999;94:915-20. Frans M H, Denise A M P, Diane D and Marc J N C K, Perinatal outcome of singletons and twins after assisted conception: a systematic review of controlled studies, BMJ 2004;328;261-; Fren J F, Sudden intrauterine unexplained death, Series of dissertations submitted to the Faculty of Medicine, University of Oslo No. 67, ISBN 82-8072-041-3, 2002. Gardosi J, Kady SM, McGeown P, Francis A, Tonks A. Classification of stillbirth by relevant condition at death (ReCoDe): population based cohort study. BMJ 2005;331:1113-7. Goldenberg RL, Thompson C. The infectious origins of stillbirth. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2003;189:861-73. Hillis SD, Anda RF, Dube SR, et al. The association between adverse childhood experiences and adolescent pregnancy, long-term psychosocial consequences, and fetal death. Pediatrics 2004;113:320-7. Horn LC, Langner A, Stiehl P, Wittekind C, Faber R. Identification of the causes of intrauterine death during 310 consecutive autopsies. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 2004; 113:134-8. Huang DY, Usher RH, Kramer MS, et al. Determinants of unexplained antepartum fetal deaths. Obstet Gynecol 2000;95:215-21. Kalousek DK, Barrett I. Confined placental mosaicism and stillbirth. Pediatr Pathol 1994; 14:151-9. Lynch A, McDuffie R Jr, Lyons E, Chase M, Orleans M, Perinatal Loss Among Twins The Permanente Journal/ Winter 2007/ Volume 11 No. 1 Mary C M M, Kate M F, Jaron A B, Pat D, Jo M, Dominique A, Shona G and Alison M, Perinatal mortality and congenital anomalies in babies of women with type 1 or type 2 diabetes in England, Wales, and Northern Ireland: population based study. BMJ 2006;333;177-; Mirlene C.S.P., Francy R.S., Marcial F. G., Antonio F. M., Evaluation of a Protocol for Postmortem Examination of Stillbirths and Neonatal Deaths with Congenital Anomalies, Journal of Pediatric and Developmental Pathology, Vol 7, Number 4/ April,2004. Nohr E A, Bech B H, Davies M J, Frydenberg M, Henriksen T B and Olsen J. Prepregnancy Obesity and Fetal Death. (Obstet Gynecol 2005;106:2509) Pastore LM, Hertz-Picciotto I, Beaumont JJ. Risk of stillbirth from occupational and residential exposures. Occup Environ Med 1997;54:511-8. Petersson K. Diagnostic evaluation of fetal death with special reference to intrauterine infections. [Dissertation]. Stockholm Sweden: Karolinska Institutet, Department of Clinical Science, Division of Obstetrics and Gynecology; 2002. Puza P. Sharma, Hamisu M. Salihu, Yinka Oyelese, Cande V. Ananth, and Russell S. Kirby. Is Race a Determinant of StillbirthRecurrence? (Obstet Gynecol 2006;107:3917) Rey E, Kahn SR, David M, Shrier I. Thrombophilic disorders and fetal loss: a meta-analysis. Lancet 2003;361:901-8. Salihu HM, Aliyu MH, Rouse DJ, Kirby RS, Alexander GR. Potentially preventable excess mortality among higher-order multiples. Obstet Gynecol 2003;102:679-84. Silver RM, Varner MW, Reddy U, Goldenberg R, Pinar H, Conway D, Bukowski R, Carpenter M, Hogue C, Willinger M, Dudley D, Saade G, Stoll B, Work up of stillbirth: A review of evidence, Am J Obstet Gynecol 2007 May;196(5):433-44. Simpson LL. Maternal medical disease: Risk of antepartum fetal death. Semin Perinatol 2002;26:42-50 Smith GC, Crossley JA, Aitken DA, et al. First-trimester placentation and the risk of antepartum stillbirth. JAMA 2004;292:2249-54. Wapner RJ, Lewis D. Genetics and metabolic causes of stillbirth. Semin Perinatol 2002;26:70-4. Wigglesworth JS. Monitoring perinatal mortality. A pathophysiological approach. Lancet, 1980;2:684-6.

Aging Is Unavoidable For Humans Essay - 4378 Words

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Wal-Mart Essay, Research Paper Justin Denman Accounting and Auditing Procedures March 4, 2000 Writing Assignment # 1 Gross Recognition Policies The intent of this paper is to compare the gross acknowledgment policies of two companies in the hunt, sensing, pilotage, counsel, and aeronautical systems industry. The two companies I have selected are Aerosonic Corporation, and Esco Electronics Company. Esco Electronics Company is engaged in the design, industry, sale and support of engineered merchandises. These merchandises are used chiefly in filteration/fluid flow applications, electromagnetic compatibility ( EMC ) testing, and electric public-service corporation communications and control systems. The filtration/fluid flow and EMC testing merchandises are supplied to a wide base of industrial and commercial clients worldwide. At the present clip, electric public-service corporation communications systems are marketed chiefly to clients in North America. The four primary industry sections of Esco are Filtration/Fluid Flow, Test, Communications, and other. In order for Esco to conform with by and large accepted accounting rules, direction must do careful estimations in fixing the fiscal statements. These estimations are for awaited contract costs and grosss earned during the life of the contract. These sums affect the reported sums of assets and liabilities on the company? s fiscal statements. Actual consequences could differ from these Numberss. Grosss are recognized on commercial gross revenues when merchandises are shipped or when services are performed. Gross on production contracts are recorded when specific contract footings are fulfilled. These sums are determined either by the units of production or bringing methods. Grosss from cost reimbursement contracts are recorded as costs are incurred, plus fees earned. Gross under long-run contracts in which the old two methods are inappropriate, the percentage-of-completion method is used. Revenue under technology contracts are by and large recognized as certain? mileposts? are attained. The percentage-of-completion method recognizes a part of the estimated gross net income for each period based on advancement to day of the month. Advancement to day of the month is based on three factors. These three factors are the costs incurred to day of the month, the most recent estimation of the undertaking? s sum cost, and the most recent gross net income per centum. Advancement to day of the month is assumed to be the proportion of the undertaking? s costs incurred to day of the month divided by entire estimated costs. This fraction is known as the estimated per centum of completion, and is the estimated per centum of completion. However, he biggest defect with this method is that it merely deals with costs. This means that there may non be strong correlativity between physical advancement and costs incurred. Conceptually, one would desire to fit grosss when the net incomes procedure is judged to be complete. Since costs don? t needfully intend physical completion, the grosss may non stand for existent completio n. However, this method does fit all grosss with appropriate disbursals. The audit hazards associated with this method is that cost incurrence could be accelerated to increase the estimation of the per centum completed. Let? s say Esco is executing a three-year contract. For simpleness, allow? s say the contract monetary value is $ 1000. The first twelvemonth of the contract, existent costs incurred to day of the month is $ 200, and the estimated remaining costs is $ 400. This would name for a jutting $ 400 gross net income on the full undertaking ( $ 1000- $ 600 ) . To calculate out the gross net income for the first twelvemonth, you would take the existent costs to day of the month ( $ 200 ) and split that by the estimated entire cost ( $ 600 ) . This equals the estimated per centum of completion ( 33 % ) . You would so take this figure and multiply it by the entire undertaking gross net income ( 33 % * $ 400 ) , and that would be the gross net income earned to day of the month. In subsequent old ages, you would take the net income earned to day of the month and subtract from it the gross net income recognized in old old ages. The following company I? vitamin D like to speak about is Aerosonic Corporation, who is in the same industry as Esco. The primary concern of Aerosonic Corporation is to fabricate and sell aircraft instruments to authorities and commercial users from its workss in Florida, Virginia, and Kansas. Prior to 1996, the company besides sold non-munitions constituents for heavy weapon missiles to the U.S. authorities and automotive and truck parts to commercial clients. The company? s clients are worldwide. Aerosonic by and large recognizes gross from gross revenues of its merchandises on the accrual footing on the day of the month such merchandises are shipped. In certain fortunes, the U.S. authorities accepts rubric of merchandises, even though the merchandises are on the Company? s premises. When the U.S. authorities accepts title in authorship, and assumes all hazards associated with those merchandises, so the Company records these points as gross revenues. Like Esco, Aerosonic follows the percentage-of completion method to account for long-run technology contracts. Revisions in costs and gross estimations are reflected in the periods in which the alterations are made. Commissariats for estimated losingss are determined without respect to the percentage-of-completion. Like Esco, Aerosonic? s fiscal statements are based to a great extent on direction? s estimations. To hearers, this raises a ruddy flag. Hearers must be careful when carry oning the audits of these peculiar companies. It is instead easy, and conceivable for direction to pull strings net incomes to run into jutting sums. Another of import country is that a company like Aerosonic has one major client, and that is U.S. authorities. Another of import factor is that Aerosonic recognizes gross when rubric transportations to the authorities. Since the two parties are closely related in a concern sense, Aerosonic may hold the inducement to force rubrics of merchandises to the authorities to run into mark grosss. Hearers should take attention in finding whether or non the fiscal statements conform by and large accepted accounting rules. 32d By: Pete Schmer

Russian Economic Framework Essays - Stock Market Crashes

Russian Economic Framework Country Analysis Framework Looking at the Russian Economy Focus of a country framework A country framework for these medium-term considerations should yield results useful for investment planning, policy choice, and financial reimbursement where appropriate. This is the focus of the framework outlined in this paper. This framework does not explicitly cover longer term and global level assessments, although one could use an essentially similar framework for those as well. This paper outlines a framework, not a methodology. It is compatible with many different specific methods. The reason for preserving this flexibility is that there are many methods, reflecting somewhat different traditions in modeling and country expertise, and each of these may have its own field of appropriate use. These methods are also evolving rapidly. Yet it is useful to identify, in the midst of these varied circumstances and rapid evolution, which particular general features are essential, or at least highly desirable, and to state these explicitly. The Harvard Business Notes Framework is very comprehensive but not focused to specific line of industry. 1 Country studies 1.1 Background 1.2 Types of country studies System boundaries Global level Country level Sector level Time frames 1.3 Country framework 2 Comparative analysis 2.1 Comparisons 2.2 Baseline strategies 2.3 Alternative strategies 2.4 Increments Comparison Other baseline strategies Other alternative strategies Comparisons using different alternative strategies 2.5 Scenarios 2.6 Cases High growth scenario Reference growth scenario Low growth scenario 2.7 Using the framework Shifts in strategy Increments in cost Sensitivities Counterfactuals Uncertainties Incentives 2.8 Conclusions and observations Comparative analysis Relevant comparisons Consistent comparisons 3 Desirable additions to the framework 3.1 Net analysis 3.2 System analysis 3.3 Economic analysis 3.4 Integrated analysis 3.5 Comprehensive analysis 3.6 Standardized analysis 3.7 National analysis Today A World Bank report on the Russian Federation states that despite the promise and optimism with which the dissolution of the USSR was greeted, the economic transition has not always sustained that optimism. According to the report, Russia still lacks the enduring economic basis to sustain its growth, and the recent uncertainty in the Russian economy only underlines the fragility of this emerging economy. In the following paper, I will describe the state of the Russian economy, how it got there, prospects for the future and recommendations regarding impact on U.S. investors. Reasons for Current Economy With the fall of the Berlin wall in 1989, and the end of the Cold War, the West was eager to support Russia and all of the former Eastern Block countries in the transition to Capitalism and democracy. In the article ?Money can't buy me love? in The Economist, Washington based Russia-watcher David Satter, states that the West had a dream of ?a strong, friendly Russian government shouldering its shares of the world's problems?. The West supported democrats and reformers in the hope that their ideas would influence their country. In addition, Russia has been the recipient of large amounts of financial aid and loans from the World Bank, the IMF, and various Western governments. According to their respective web sites, since 1992 the World Bank has approved more than $11.29 billion in loans for projects to Russia, while the IMF has loaned more that $15 billion. Unfortunately, while integration with the world economy has resulted in success stories such as Hungary and Estonia, Russia has continued to struggle. Many of the pro-western politicians turned out to be politically inept, and some outright corrupt. In addition, there is a growing mistrust of the Western ideals and ways. In August of last year, the Russian government defaulted on $40 billion worth of debt in ruble bonds, rocking the world's economy. Before this crisis, the Russian economy appeared to be developing quite nicely. They had a growing middle class and the needs of the poor were being met by a small but thriving volunteer sector. Many businesses, in light of competition from foreign firms was beginning to show promise, and was putting more focus on meeting the needs of shareholders, customers and employees. Also the government had a steady tax revenue stream. Since the crisis however, the economy has been shrinking, and the fledgling middle class has been devastated. Russia still maintains a healthy current account surplus of $18 billion, but dues to the lack of confidence in the economy, most of these dollars are being deposited into stable foreign currency accounts outside of Russia in safe havens such as Switzerland. In addition, little of this money shows up in tax revenue for the government. Russia has a remarkably inefficient tax system, which has allowed widespread nonpayment of taxes. Tax revenues last year were running at